Development Sociology

"We are capable of incurring great harm to each other. We are also capable of giving and helping each other. We have choices as well as constraints in how we relate to each other. This has the greatest implications to what kind of society we have. We shall find the nature of our choices and constraints, so that we can wisely act and make our society better."

To prepare us better, I am making a case for initiating new development sociology.

The Essence of True Development

Human development is the process of enlarging people's choices in what they do and can do to have better and decent lives. The choices are created by expanding human capacities by becoming more knowledgeable, having more access to the resources to lead long and healthy lives, and more meaningful lives (Streeten UNDP 1999:16).

The capacity is the local ability of individuals and collectivities to solve problems, and set and achieve goals. Capacity Development entails the sustainable creation, utilization and retention of that capacity, in order to reduce poverty, enhance self-reliance, and improve people's lives ( Source: UNDP Capacity Development ).

It cannot be overemphasized that these capacities should locally exist. To understand how the local capacities should be developed, the concept of endogenous development is useful. External development models that include foreign knowledge and technology have to be modified to suit traditions and social structures that exist within a developing society so that local and external capacities can be put together. It is not static but dynamic process as the tradition and social structures are likely to change as well by the adoption of modified foreign models. Tradition does not stay as tradition for too long (Tsurumi 1976).

What is New Development Sociology about?

The purpose of the new development sociology is to contribute to realizing the true development by rigorous empirical research on development problems and development cooperation. These constitute separate research agenda and explained as below.

1. Research on Development Problems

This research concerns people in the developing societies and attempt to find the causes of capacity development.

Capacity development can be analyzed by three elements (Tsurumi 1976).

The first is technology and knowledge used for producing materials necessary for living such as food, clothing, houses, etc. This technology and knowledge can be conceptualized as capacity.

The second is consciousness that include ideas and values transmitted from one generation to the next.

The third is social relations which include relationships among individuals and organizations in the soceiteis.

Consciousness and social relations are interrelated to one another and influence capacity development as described in the Figure 1. The research should concern identifying what these elements are, and interrelations among these elements in concrete terms so that we can find ways to improve the processes of capacity development.

Each of these structural elements and the relationships between the elements can constitute a topic for the research in order to find out the cause of problems constraining capacities necessary to realize the true development.

2. Research on Development Cooperation.

This research concerns problems of those who assist development societies. Numerous practices of international development suffer from ineffectiveness in realizing the true development in the above sense. To make them more effective, David Ellerman (2006) proposes three essentials.
1. Start from where people are.
People in the developing societies have potential and they also have capacities for development. The development process should start from what people have. If the external assistance has the gap to what people have, it cannot be connected and cannot contribute to developing existing capacities. The assistance will not take root and will be wasted.

2. See the world through the their eyes.
In order to start from where people are or from what capacities people have, we need to understand lifeworld and lived experiences of the people from their own perspectives (Long 2001).

3. Respect local autonomy.
A society has its own path of development. There are many possibilities, but it has to be actualized by the people themselves, for which their autonomy is the essential. It does not mean that they should be left alone on their own without any external support. External actors can be a facilitator of the local processes of development by providing. But the reality is that the external actors do not have faith sufficient faith in the potential existing in the local societies, do not have sufficient knowledge of existing local capacities, and do not respect autonomy. But without respected autonomy, true development is never possible.

The new development sociology can research on the problems and difficulties for development organizations and professionals in practicing the above essentials by using theories and methods, and propose solutions so that development cooperations may have impact on social relations and consciousness so that these two elements can interact better with one another and may effectively enhance their capacities. This conceptualization is captured in Figure 2.

The research steps

1. Identifying the problem

2. Specifying the research question

3. Finding social theories
A social theory captures a systematic set of interrelated elements and reveals the social mechanisms that in reality generate action and outcomes. By conceputualizing the relationships between the elements, it helps us understand the causes of the problem, which is essential to point to what should be done to remove the cause of the problem as a solution. Relevant social theories here explain how individuals, organizations, or communities are constrained in their capacities to　have more choices. 4. Hypotheses

5. Data collection

6. Analyses and testing hypotheses

7. Solution proposals

APPLICATION

I. Participatory Community Development

Community development projects that involve participation of community residents in planning and implementation of the projects and enhance lives and living conditions of communities have become increasingly common. This kind of project typically focuses on organizing people so that they can come to have capacities to plan and manage the project. This also has impact on individual capacities to enhance their lives. Such projects present good applications of how project can have impact on social structures that enhance communal and individual capacities.

1. A Theory: social influence network

To explain such impact of the project on changes in social structure, we need theories. Relevant here is social influence network. Social networks change the way people participate in organizations, and comply with institutions through influencing perception and attitude.

Social Networks
Social comparison theory posits that interpersonal interactions and agreements are ubiquitous in social groups and fundamental for persons to form their attitudes. People assume that there is normatively correct attitudes and actions for them, or others in situations of uncertainty conflict. People form their attitude via social comparisons in which they weigh and integrate the attitudes of others and interpersonal agreements validate the attitudes developed in the process. Attitudes tend to be unstable in the absence of interpersonal agreements because persons are unlikely to be confident that their attitudes are correct when there are no influential others who agree with them (Festinger 1950 and 1954). Social networks shape attitude, perception of, and behavior of individuals in relation with institutions and organizations.

Institution
Institution refers to norms and rules that provide the guidance of how they should live and interact with one another in the society. Norm refers to a person's perception that a feeling, thought or action is appropriate or desirable for one or more persons in particular circumstances (Homans 1961 : p. 46). Norm relevant in this context is that one should cooperate and contribute to community welfare. Norms are accepted and internalized by persons and become part of their personalities. This is called socialization (Abercrombie, Hill, and Turner 1988, p. 231). Social network provides a mechanism of induction, maintenance, and compliance with norms.

Organization
Social networks influence people's perception and attitude to organizations that determine the probability of participation and the contents and degree of commitment and contribution to organizations.

References

Ellerman, David. 2006. Helping People Help Themselves. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

Long, Norman. 2001. Development Sociology: Actor Perspectives. Routledge. New York.

Streeten, Paul. 1999. "Ten Years of Human Development∩ in Human Development Report 1999. The United Nations Development Programme, New York.

Tsurumi, Kazuko. 1976. Kokusaikaihatsu-to-kindaikahattenron in Kokusaigaku ed. by Kinhide Mushakoji and Michio Royama. Tokyo University Press. Tokyo.

Recommended Books for the New Development Sociology

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Keiichi Takaki, Ph. D
Lecturer
Graduate Program in Global Studies
Sophia University, Tokyo
Syllabus: New Development Sociology
curriculum vitae
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